Can node stability underlie the verbal transformation effect?

‘Illusion arises when the perceptual system breaks down. Researchers study illusions to enhance their understanding of the otherwise hidden mechanisms responsible for accurate perception. Studying verbal illusions, therefore, may reveal something about the functioning of the language system. One such illusion is the verbal transformation effect, first reported by researchers in 1958. They found that listeners who were presented with a continuously repeating word or phrase began to perceive transformations — that is, changes in the repeating stimulus, relative to what the listener had perceived on preceding repetitions of the stimulus. Transformations ranged from one-phoneme alterations to drastic phonological distortions. For example, when presented with the word truce, participants reported hearing phonetically similar transformations, such as struce and truth, and the pseudoword struth, as well as dissimilar transformations, such as Esther.

‘This transformation is also related to semantic satiation, a psychological phenomenon in which repetition causes a word or phrase to temporarily lose meaning for the listener, who then processes the speech as repeated meaningless sounds. The phrase “semantic satiation” was coined by Leon Jakobovits James in his doctoral dissertation at McGill University, Montreal, Canada awarded in 1962. The dissertation presents several experiments that demonstrate the operation of the semantic satiation effect in various cognitive tasks such as rating words and figures that are presented repeatedly in a short time, verbally repeating words then grouping them into concepts, adding numbers after repeating them out loud, and bilingual translations of words repeated in one of the two languages. In each case subjects would repeat a word or number for several seconds, then perform the cognitive task using that word. It was demonstrated that repeating a word prior to its use in a task made the task somewhat more difficult. The explanation for the phenomenon was that verbal repetition repeatedly aroused a specific neural pattern in the cortex which corresponds to the meaning of the word. Rapid repetition causes both the peripheral sensorimotor activity and the central neural activation to fire repeatedly, which is known to cause reactive inhibition, hence a reduction in the intensity of the activity with each repetition.

‘What causes verbal transformations? The most detailed accounts of the verbal transformation effect to date are derived from a broad theory of speech perception and production known as node structure theory. Node structure theory is instantiated as a localist network model, with nodes (representational units) hierarchically organized into three levels: the muscle movement level, the phonological level, and the sentential level. The muscle movement level contains nodes specifically for the production of speech. Nodes at the phonological level represent sublexical linguistic units, such as syllables, sub-syllabic segments (e.g., onset or rhyme), and phonetic features. The sentential level contains lexical nodes for words and phrases.

‘Both perception and production operate on the same nodes at the phonological and sentential levels. In perception, speech input first primes nodes at the feature level. Priming produces increased subthreshold activity (but not activation, as the term is generally used) in a node.It spreads in parallel across nodes, with its strength being positively related to how well it matches the input. In the same fashion, priming spreads to the phonological nodes and, finally, to the lexical nodes. At each level, priming strength is a function of the match to the input from the preceding level. Although several nodes may be primed at once, only the node that is primed to a higher degree than all the others becomes activated.

‘How pseudowords are recognized and new lexical entries are formed is also described by node structure theory. Connections from nodes in the phonological system converge to form temporary lexical nodes that represent pseudowords. These connections are initially weak, and without frequent activation, these newly formed and fragile connections will decay. Repeated use of the pseudoword will eventually “commit” the node to permanent status, at which point it will become a new entry in the lexicon.

‘Unique among models of speech perception, node structure theory provides a detailed account of the dynamics of representational units during repeated stimulation, which allows one to make precise predictions regarding the verbal transformation effect. In node structure theory, verbal transformations occur because of node satiation, which is a drop in the maximum attainable priming level of a node. Nodes at the lexical level or at the phonological level can become satiated. Satiation occurs because of repeated activation (not merely priming) of a node from continual repetition of the same utterance (e.g., the word cast). As satiation increases, the node’s priming level drops, eventually falling below that of a competitor node (e.g., the lexical node for fast) that is only moderately primed by the speech input, because of one or more mismatching phonological segments. Because the most primed node becomes activated in node structure theory, the competitor node (e.g., the lexical node for fast), which now has the highest priming level, will then become activated, resulting in the perception of a transformation (i.e., the word fast) by the listener.

‘As the preceding description suggests, the amount of priming a node receives greatly influences the transformations perceived. A node that is unable to attain a great deal of priming will rarely become activated. One other factor that influences transformations, according to node structure theory, is neighborhood density, which is the number of lexical entries (i.e., neighbors) that are phonetically similar to the repeating stimulus. The more neighbors there are, the greater the number of possible competitors there are to become activated, resulting in a greater number and a wider range of transformations. Researchers have reported data that confirm this prediction.

‘At the heart of node structure theory’s account of the verbal transformation effect is the concept of lexical node stability, which refers to the extent to which a node remains activated over its competitors. The more stable a node is, the less frequently it will lose out to other lexical competitors becoming activated. Stability is a function of a number of variables, such as the amount of priming transmitted to the lexical node from phonological nodes (i.e., acoustic–phonetic fit), neighborhood density, and strength of its connections, which is directly related to frequency of use. Thus, node stability should be inversely related to transformation frequency. In particular, nodes for words, which have strong and well-formed representations, should be more stable than nodes for pseudowords. Data from a few experiments partially support this prediction. In 1966, researchers recorded the number of transformations that listeners reported when hearing words and pseudowords repeat. He found that pseudowords elicited more transformations than did words, suggesting that nodes for pseudowords are less stable than nodes for words. In an analysis of the specific transformations (i.e., forms) that listeners reported, one researcher found a similar asymmetry, with pseudowords eliciting more forms than did words. Natsoulas also discussed the verbal transformation effect in terms of satiation and perceptual stability.

‘Construction of an accurate model of word perception requires specifying the operation of representational units. At present, knowledge about their operation is lacking, which is why decisions on how to implement them in computational models, such as TRACE and Merge, must be guided by intuitions and indirect evidence. The hypothesized mechanisms of satiation and recovery, as embodied in node structure theory, begin to fill this gap by describing how reactivation of representational units might occur. The verbal transformation effect is well suited for testing the validity of this proposal, because the frequent perception of transformations provides a means of measuring node stability and, thus, linking it to one or more of these mechanisms.’ — Lisa Contos Shoaf & Mark A. Pitt, Ohio State University

Auditory Demonstrations

The demonstrations were designed for headphone listening, and since some of the effects involve different signals delivered to each ear, stereo headphones are recommended. If you click on the link, a new window will open and begin playing the sound file. You should adjust the playback so that the narrative portions are at a comfortable listening level.

RESTORATION OF ABSENT SOUNDS

Homophonic Temporal Induction
Broadband Noise
Tone (Fixed Levels)
Tone (Changing Fainter Level)

Heterophonic Temporal Induction
Tones

Temporal Induction of Speech:
Single Phonemic Restoration
Restoration by Noise

Temporal Induction of Speech:
Multiple Phonemic Restorations
Restoration by Noise


PITCH AND INFRAPITCH

Repetition of Frozen Noise Segments
“Whooshing” Infrapitch (2 Hz)
“Motorboating” Infrapitch (6 Hz)
“Motorboating” Infrapitch (15 Hz)
Noisy Pitch (40 Hz)
Pure Melodic Pitch (120 Hz)
Pure Melodic Pitch (300 Hz)


CONTRALATERAL INDUCTION OF TONE

Contralateral Induction


PERCEPTION OF ACOUSTIC SEQUENCES

Identification of Order
Nonverbal and Verbal Sounds

Global Pattern Recognition of Permuted Orders
Brief Nonverbal Sounds
Brief Speech Sounds:
The Vowel Sequence Illusion


ILLUSORY CHANGES OF REPEATED WORDS:
THE VERBAL TRANSFORMATION EFFECT

Diotic “Flame”
Dichotic “Flame”
Diotic Bisyllabic Reversible Word “Farewell/Welfare”
Dichotic “Farewell/Welfare”
Diotic Monosyllabic Reversible Word “Ace/Say”
Dichotic “Ace/Say”


test

‘The philosopher and musicologist Theodor W. Adorno describes material as something which is a self-sedimented spirit, predetermined by society, in the minds of people. Based on this theory, the artist can only choose from a limited range of materials as dealing intensively with the material inevitably leads to a discussion with society. If an artist consciously tries to abandon this repressive paradigm he or she might only partly succeed since historical patterns will immediately be recalled. Adorno exemplifies the shabbiness and abrasion of the diminished seventh chord or certain chromatic passing notes in the Palm Court Music of the 19th century as musical taboos. According to him, these tones were not only outmoded but utterly wrong and did not fulfill their function any more. The truth or non-truth of a material is not decided on its isolated appearance but on its position within the prevailing standards of aesthetics.

‘In music there are only few compositions that consist of merely perseverative repetitions. The composers rather express themselves by gradual changes of certain individual notes or entire figures. Minimal Art produces several pieces which use repetitions whose components do not change. Initially the repetitive moment is the most striking feature of Minimalist music. At the beginning of their Minimalist-oriented period many Minimalist composers work with highly repetitive patterns, like Philip Glass, who concentrates basically on repetition and static harmony for the electrically amplified violin in his composition Strung Out (1967). While Glass tends to vary the repetitions, Steve Reich employs this musical technique for his audiotape compositions and his piece Piano Phase (1967) in a continually unaltered way.

‘The Englishman Michael Nyman and the founder of the Scratch Orchestra, Cornelius Cardew (born in Gloucester in 1939, died in London in 1981), are the most important European representatives of Minimalism. In his compositions Nyman primarily uses historic models and exposes them to never-ending repetitive procedures which vary only insignificantly. In Minimalism repetition does not mean an approximation to inartificiality in the sense of Popular music, but rather creates a visual rhythm or specific motion models. Repetition creates patterns either according to an exactly defined plan or by chance. The first way usually means employing mathematical logical processes and takes place in an environment of which the artist is fully aware, while the final result of the second way, a random process, is not directly predictable.

‘Repetition is seen as one of the central characteristics of Minimalism but at the same time it is defamed as monotony or a consequence of a lack of originality. Minimalists are commonly accused of only seeking to disguise the centripetal force in music that inclines towards monotony. By the end of the 1970s at the latest, the term Minimalist is used more frequently as a swearword than as an art term. Nevertheless, retrospectively it is the expressionism that is to a large extent held responsible for the cultural setbacks during the Reagan era, while Minimalism in the 1960s, despite its restrictivity, allows for various cultural flows to develop. By restricting the material and the possibility of its modification, the criticised repetition inevitably leads to a Minimalist principle, even if some artists regard repetition as an independent movement. The composer Louis Andriessen (born in Utrecht in 1939) argues that for him the repetitive moment is always more important than the so-called Minimalism.’ — Christian Schrei

Terry Riley ‘In C’ (1964)

Steve Reich ‘It’s Gonna Rain’ (1965)

Steve Reich ‘Come Out’ (1966)

Philip Glass ‘Music with Changing Parts’ (1970)

Gavin Bryars ‘Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet’ (1971)

Michael Nyman ‘Time Lapse’ (1985)

*

p.s. Hey. ** Dominik, Hi!!! I’m glad your brain saw the light. Holy shit, yes! Everyone, Big and important news! Dominik’s crucial and eternally mind-blowing zine SCAB has just issued its 19th edition! And it can be yours to use to luxuriate your internal world for free! And this issue includes all sorts of excellent wordsmiths including the blog’s very own Harper Springer! Go here to start reading it post-haste. So exciting and so needed! I’m good. Re: the new film, we’re about to enter the all important and very nerve-wracking fundraising phase. Knock on every example of wood in your vicinity when one of your hands is free. Love is the draft of a poem. He likes being polished and completed. Sometimes he is also a good friend, G. ** jay, Haha, oh right, of course, his Proust one. Haven’t seen it, no surprise. Although you are tempting me. Oh, no, dare I get that close to the forbidden one? Happy day, pal. ** Adem Berbic, Time is the great something-or-other. Will do re: the metro carwash. Yeah, I’m strangely excited. There’s also a tour you can take of the metro system’s dead tunnels and dead stations, but it’s at something like 3 am, so no go for me. What is an internal vacancy? If those words appeared in a blurb on a book, I’d be interested. ** Carsten, Very happy that de Hirsh’s work is connecting with you. Spread the word. I quite like writing the descriptive parts of a script. It’s like writing something that will dissolve in the visual and maybe bob on its surface in a particular way. No, I don’t put in the camera stuff. One, that’s more Zac’s area, and, two, we don’t really finalise that aspect until we find the DP we’re going to work with. Well, we can only hope that since the producer is enthusiastic about the deck that means she suspects that it will sway the money people. ** _Black_Acrylic, There’s no slut like a Glaswegian slut. Perhaps? So excited for your print workshop entrance. Go Leeds United. They have at least once French supporter. Well, okay, not French, but … ** Ilán Valdés, Hi. Was I more benevolent? I think the ‘scorts get all the credit. I just grab the best. But maybe there’s something in the air. ** James Bennett, I was curiously very into the WWE when I lived in Amsterdam in the 80s and then a bit after into the early 90s. I was very interested in how they build and use narrative. The trainwash thing is open to the public, but they only allow a limited number of people, so you have to sort of sign up and wait for an opening. I think Zac said he/we had been on the waiting list for a year. One would think Notre Dame would have the creme de la choirs, yes. ** laura w., Yeah, previous generations of your family dying is very weird. Both of my parents being dead still fucks with my brain. I interviewed Clive Barker once, and he had just published a not very good and very long, long-winded novel called ‘Coldheart Canyon’, and he asked me a couple of times during the interview how I managed to write such short novels because he said he had completely forgotten how to do that. I can think of a lot of favorite films that weren’t written by the director, although of course a good director is the script’s ultimate editor. Luca Guadagnino’s films suck. Although he has a new documentary about Bertolucci, and I’ll see that because I like Bertolucci. The trainwash tour was Zac’s burning idea, and when he proposed it to me, I got the itch too. ** Bill, In fairness to the commenters, I do tend to favor the mean ones because the non-mean ones don’t tend to be very interesting. To me. I hope the door flung itself wide open for you. ** HaRpEr //, I thought so too. Obviously, I guess. Oh, good, I’ll get the Lake book. Nightboat published it, I think, and I pretty much trust them. Yes, you’re in SCAB! And you’re the finale! I’m burning to read it. That Godard series is really nuts and great. See what you see. ** Okay. So what do you guys think, can node stability underlie the verbal transformation effect? See you tomorrow.